THE IMPERIAL SUCCESSION

Each country’s system of government is determined by historical, social, and political conditions. In the contemporary world there are almost 30 monarchies, but they are by no means uniform in nature. Today’s Japanese system may be described as a constitutional monarchy similar to that of Britain. The Japanese Constitution describes the emperor as the “symbol of the State and of the unity of the people” whose position is based on “the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.” But at the same time, the institution of the Japanese tennô, or “heavenly sovereign,” with its history of well over a millennium, has pronounced differences from other monarchies. Two features should be noted as distinctive to the Japanese institution.

First is the fact that at least since the sixth century, or as far back as definite historical records take us, the imperial succession has continued uninterrupted right up through the present emperor, without once having passed to a house other than that of the present imperial family. This is a record of continuity unmatched in any other existing monarchy. In the case of Thailand, which is another Asian example of a constitutional monarchy, the present Chakkri royal house was preceded by the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya houses. The present British royal family traces its origins back to a line of English kings starting with William the Conqueror more than 900 years ago, but over the course of this period it has passed through a succession of different houses. Through William’s granddaughter it went to the Plantagenets, and with the death of the last of the direct Plantagenet line, Richard II (of Shakespearean fame), began the bloody struggle between the collateral houses of York and Lancaster. The throne then passed through female succession to the Tudors. With the death of the last Tudor monarch, Elizabeth I, the succession passed to the Stuarts, who were followed in turn by the Hanoverian royal house and by the present House of Windsor.

In Japan’s case, the right of succession has not been extended to the offspring of imperial daughters who married into other houses. The principle of patrilineal inheritance has been maintained consistently. It is for this reason that the imperial family has to this day never had a surname.

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The second major distinguishing feature is the Japanese monarchy’s long history of reigning without holding political or military authority. From the time of the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate in the twelfth century through the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the emperor in Kyoto was in almost all cases a figurehead, with real power resting in the hands of a series of shôgun and other warlords. So great was the shôgun’s authority that in some cases he would even order an emperor to be deposed and decide which imperial prince would succeed to the throne. But no shôgun ever sought to usurp the place of the imperial house (by contrast, for example, with the Carolingian “mayors of the palace” who took over the Frankish throne for their own family in the eighth century). The rank of shôgun (short for seii taishôgun, or “barbarian-subduing generalissimo”) was bestowed by the emperor.

In the sense that the imperial institution was divorced from political power, the role of the emperor during these centuries was quite similar to that of today’s “symbolic” emperor. The present imperial family is generally loved and respected by the Japanese, and opinion polls consistently show strong majorities favoring the monarchy. Behind these phenomena we should recognize the presence of a widespread awareness among the Japanese of the remarkable continuity of their country's imperial line and also an acceptance, grounded in tradition, of the separation between the monarch's position and political power.

In recent years, however, the imperial institution has turned into a subject of considerable debate. The reason is the issue of imperial succession. As explained below in the dialogue between Takahashi Hiroshi and Tokoro Isao, no males have been born in the line of succession for over 30 years. The concern has arisen that the line may find itself without an heir. One way of dealing with this would be to revise the Imperial House Law (in effect since 1947) so as to permit women to succeed to the throne. But this raises a number of related issues. The main topic of discussion is thus of whether to allow for female tennô.

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One poll taken in 1998 showed 49.7% in favor of allowing women to succeed to the throne and 30.6% opposed. This is a reversal of the results of a similar poll taken in 1992, which showed 32.5% in favor and 46.8% opposed. This change may be seen partly as a reflection of social trends and the spread of the concept of equal opportunity for men and women. At the same time, however, it probably also indicates the gradual emergence of real concern over the lack of future heirs.

In the late nineteenth century, as Japan was preparing to adopt its first constitution on Western lines, the issue of female succession was the object of broad and lively debate. Many proposed drafts for the constitution were prepared both within the government and by people outside it; what is extremely interesting is that of the 22 drafts containing provisions on the imperial line, 13 allowed for women to inherit the throne, including the draft drawn up by the government’s Genrôin, or Chamber of Elders.^* The issue was discussed again after World War II when the Imperial House Law was being drafted, but the deliberations seem not to have been thorough. In their dialogue below, Tokoro and Takahashi urge that this issue now be reconsidered.

The other article in this section, a dialogue between historian Amino Yoshihiko and anthropologist Yamaguchi Masao, considers this problem from a broader perspective. As Yamaguchi points out, raising the issue of female tennô opens the door to various other issues. We have probably reached the point where we need to consider all these issues relating to the Japanese monarchy. (TAKASHINA Shûji, Director General, National Museum of Western Art)

*For details, see Suzuki Masaaki, “Meiji igo no tennôsei wa naze josei tennô o hitei shita ka” (Why Has the Monarchy Since Meiji Excluded Female Sovereigns?), Ronza, December 1998.

© 1999 Japan Echo Inc.